LINGUISTICS

a.       Linguistics

The linguistics word comes from the lingua (Latin language) meaning language, "langage-langue" in French; "lingua" of the Italian language, "lengua" from the Spanish and the "language" of the English language. The “ics” suffix have a function to show the name of science, so thats mean science of language, just like economics, physics word. Linguistics is a sains that assessing language. Linguistics also called scientific because used empirical rules based on something that is seen, felt, heard.[1]

b.      Language

Generally, language can be defined as a symbol. Another understanding of the language is a communication tool in the form of sign systems generated by humans mouth. We need to know that the language consisting of words or group of words. Each one has a meaning, that is the abstract relations between words as symbols with objects or concepts, that are represented by an expert of language as group of words or vocabulary that sorting alphabetically, or in alphabetical sorter, with an explanation of its meaning and then recorded into a dictionary or lexicon.

When we speaking or writing, the words that we say and we write are not structured, but its follow the rules. To express ideas, thoughts or feelings, we must choose the right words and arrange the words according to the rules of the language. Set of rules that became based of the used  language, or the language that we use as a language’s guide is called grammar.[2]

c.       History Of Linguistics

The study of linguistics has expansion in three stage, from the first stage is called the speculation, the second stage is called the observation and classification, and the third stage is called theory formulation.

At speculation stage, statements about language is not based on empirical data, but on fairy tales or fiction. For example, the statement of Andreas Kemke, an expert on philology from Sweden in the 17th century which states that the Prophet Adam used to be in heaven speak in Denmark, while the snake spoke in French, is not able to be verified as not supported by empirical evidence.

At classification and observation stage, the experts of language make observations and classification of the languages ​​under investigation, but it has not come yet to formulate their theory. Therefore, their work can’t call to be scientific.

In third stage, where the language is not only observed and studied, but also has made ​​the theories.

In the history of its development, linguistics filled with streams, understanding, approaches and techniques of inquiry from the outside it seems very complicated, contradictory, and confusing, especially for beginners. These will be talking about the history, development, and understand some linguistic streams of ancient times to the current times.

1.      Traditional Linguistics

Traditional term in linguistics is often contrasted with structural terms, so there is a term in formal traditional grammar and structural grammar. Traditional grammar analyzes based on the philosophy of language and semantics, while the structural grammar based on the structure or formal characteristics that exist in a particular language.

2.   Linguistics Structuralists

Structuralist linguistics attempt to describe a language characteristic based characteristics possessed language. This is as a result of the concepts or new perspectives on language and language study in Modern Linguistics, its  pointed out by Mr. Ferdinand de Saussure.

2.      Transformational Linguistics

The world of science, linguistics is not a static activity, but its an dynamic activity; growing steadily, according to the philosophy of science, which always wants to find the ultimate truth. Structural linguistics was born because is not satisfied with the approach and prosedsur that used in traditional linguistics when analyzing the language. Then people felt that too many weaknesses in structural model, so its caused born the different one, although there are many similarities with the original structural model. Total change occurred with the born of transformation linguistics that has a different way with structural linguistics.

3.      About Linguistics In Indonesia

As the big country which have many ethnic with many district that have the different language, for a long time Indonesia has became an object of linguistics research. For the begining, research in Indonesia is do by the experts from Netherland and the other Europe country with the colonial purpose.

The modern concept that growth by Ferdinand de Saussure has begin since the begining of XX century. But. It seems that the modern linguistik came to indonesia on the latest one, its 50’s. The formal linguistik education in literature majored and the institute of teacher education till 50’s its still use the traditional normatif concept.

Many research of indonesian language is doing by foreign. As the function as the national language, indonesian language became the first place on the assessed of linguistik, althought in Indonesia or out of the country. Nationally, indonesian language have a grammar book and a big dictionary which arranged by the expert.[3]

d.      Scope of linguistik

1.         Linguistik scoping some wide topic, which the border is hard to be define, that  is phonetic, phonology, syntax, and semantic.

2.         Phonetic, its a science about sound speech of human, its to be opinion as the base of linguistic than as the part of linguistic.

3.         Phonology, synthax and semantic is a soul of linguistic, they express a grammar from a language.

4.         Phonology is a science about arranged the human sound, synthax(arranged sentence),  morphology(arrange words), and  semanthic(about the meaning).

5.         Except that three linguistic,  there  are some branch of linguistic that growing in this time; Phsycholinguistic (about relation between language with mind), sosiolinguistic( about relation between language with society), linguistic anthrophology, philosopi linguistic, mathematic linguistic, tsilistika and teach language.

6.         There are also Hystorical linguistic (about the chance o f language) thats learn about grammar with a certain time, or to equalizing the growth of  grammar between one periode to another.

7.         Analize the language just in one periode, its called synchronization analizing, and to equalizing language in one periode with another called diachronis analizing.[4]

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[1] rujuknota.blogspot.com

[2] http://ridwanaz.com

[3]  http://anniunni.blogspot.com

[4] http://lidahibu.com

Introduction To Morphology

Morphology is the identification, analysis and description of the structure of a given language's morphemes and other linguistic units, such as words, affixes, parts of speech, intonation/stress, or implied context (words in a lexicon are the subject matter of lexicology). Geert (2005: 7) Explain that, “In present-day linguistics, the term ‘morphology’ refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and of the systematic form–meaning correspondences between words.”  “The two basic functions of morphological operations are (i) the creation of new words (i.e. new lexemes), and (ii) spelling out the appropriate form of a lexeme in a particular syntactic context.”

What linguists infer from these observations:

a.       The meaningful parts into which words can be divided—e.g., boldest can be divided into bold+est--are called the morphemes of the language. These are considered the basic units of meaning in a particular language.

b.      Words that have meaning by themselves—boy, food, door—are called lexical morphemes. Those words that function to specify the relationship between one lexical morpheme and another—words like at, in, on, -ed, -s—are called grammatical morphemes.

c.       Those morphemes that can stand alone as words are called free morphemes (e.g., boy, food, in, on). The morphemes that occur only in combination are called bound morphemes (e.g., -ed, -s, -ing).

d.      Bound grammatical morphemes can be further divided into two types: inflectional morphemes (e.g., -s, -est, -ing) and derivational morphemes (e.g., - ful, -like, -ly, un-, dis-).

e.       Processes of word-formation can be described.

Morphem

A morpheme can be defined as a minimal unit having more or less constant meaning and more of less constant form. For example, linguists say that the word buyers is made up of three morphemes {buy}+{er}+{s}. The evidence for this is that each can occur in other combinations of morphemes without changing its meaning. We can find {buy} in buying, buys, and {er} in seller, fisher, as well as buyer. And {s} can be found in boys, girls, and dogs.

The more combinations a morpheme is found in, the more productive it is said to

be.

Note the terminology: Braces, { } indicate a morpheme. Square brackets, [ ]

indicate a semantic characterization. Italics indicate a lexical item.

1.      Morphemes can vary in size: neither the number of syllables nor the length of a word can indicate what is a morpheme and what isn’t. For example, Albatross is a long word but a single morpheme, -y (as in dreamy ) is also a single morpheme.

2.      Just as linguists have had success dissecting phonemes into combinations of distinctive features, so they have viewed morphemes as made up of combinations of semantic features. For example, we can analyze a word like girls in terms of both its morphological and its semantic structure:

Morphological: girls = {girl} + {s}

Semantic: {girl} = [-adult; -male; +human, ...] + {s} = {PLU} = [plural]

[More on this when we get to the topic of Semantics.]

3.      Two different morphemes may be pronounced (and even sometimes spelled) the same way. For example, the –er in buyer means something like ‘the one who,’ while the –er in shorter means something like ‘to a greater degree than.’ The first –er always attaches to a verb, while the second –er always attaches to an adjective. It makes sense to consider these two different morphemes that just happen to sound the same. (The first is called the agentive morpheme {AG} since it indicates the agent of an action; the second is called the comparative morpheme {COMP} since it indicates the comparative degree of an adjective.)

4.      We can’t always hold to the definition of a morpheme as having unchanging form. For example, when we consider words like boys, girls, shirts, books, we conclude that –s is the plural morpheme (symbolized {PLU}.) But what about words such as men or women? Here plurality is indicated not by adding –s but by changing the vowel in the stem. Yet we still want to say that men is, morphologically, {man} + {PLU}, even though the form of {PLU} is quite different in this case. In the same way, it seems sensible to say that went = {go} + {PAST}, just as walked = {walk} + {PAST}, even though in the first case {PAST} involves a morphological change in form quite different from the usual adding of –ed.

5.      Sometimes it is very difficult to identify morpheme boundaries. For example, the word hamburger originally meant {Hamburg} = ‘a city in Germany’ + {er} = ‘originating from.’ But probably most people now understand the word as meaning {ham} = ‘ham’ + {burger} = ‘hot patty served on a round bun.’

Division of Morphemes into Various Types

Inflectional and Derivational Morphemes

We can make a further distinction within the set of morphemes that are both bound and grammatical. Bound grammatical morphemes (those that don’t have a sense by themselves and, additionally, always occur in combinations) are commonly known as affixes. They can be further divided into inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.

Here is some of the evidence for the distinction between inflectional and derivational affixes (the book has more):

Inflectional Affixes	Derivational Affixes
All are suffixes	May be either suffixes or prefixes
Have a wide range of application. E.g. most English nouns can be made plural, with {PLU}	May have a wide or narrow range
All native to English (since Old English was spoken around 500-1000 AD)	Many were adopted from Latin, Greek, or other languages. (Though others, especially the suffixes, are native, including {ful}, {like}, {ly}, and {AG})

Inflectional Affixes

English has only eight inflectional affixes:

{PLU} = plural                                               Noun -s boys

{POSS} = possessive                                      Noun -’s boy’s

{COMP} = comparative                                 Adj -er older

{SUP} = superlative                                       Adj -est oldest

{PRES} = present                                           Verb -s walks

{PAST} past                                                   Verb -ed walked

{PAST PART} = past participle                     Verb -en driven

{PRES PART} = present participle    Verb -ing driving

Notice that, as noted above, even irregular forms can be represented morphologically using these morphemes. E.g. the irregular plural sheep is written as {sheep} + {PLU}, even though the typically form of {PLU} is not used here.

Similarly, better = {good} + {COMP}; drove = {drive} + {PAST}.

Addition;

·         {PLU} plural nounds are repsented as root + {PLU}, whether or not {-s} is actually added to the root.

·         {POSS} possessive nounds are root + {poss}, whether or not {-s} is added. It’s a historical accident that both these affixes sound the same.

·         {COMP} and {SUP}. comparative and superlative adjtectives. happier = {happy} + {COMP}; happiest = {happy} + {SUP}. Arguably, most beautiful = {beautiful} + {SUP}

Derivational Affixes

There are an indefinite number of derivational morphemes. For example, the following are some derivational suffixes:

{ize} attaches to a noun and turns it into a verb: rubberize

{ize} also attaches to an adjective and turns it into a verb: normalize

{ful} attaches to a noun and turns it into an adjective: playful, helpful

{ly} attaches to an adjective and turns it into an adverb: grandly, proudly

A different {ly} attaches to a noun and changes it into an adjective: manly, friendly

English also has derivational prefixes, such as: {un}, {dis}, {a}, {anti}, all of which indicate some kind of negation: unhappy, dislike, atypical, anti-aircraft.

Word Formation Processes

Obviously words don’t make words, people make words! But study of historical change in languages shows that people do so in ways that are systematic. Since children often make words too, the study of historical language change has potential relevance to study of child language.

·         derivation: adding a derivational affix, thus changing the syntactic category. orient > orientation

·         category extension: extending a morpheme from one syntactic category to another. chair (N) > chair (V)

·         compound: combining two old words to make one new one: put-down

·         root creation: inventing a brand new word. Kodak

·         clipped form: shortening a word: brassiere > bra

·         blend: two words smooched together: smoke + fog > smog

·         acronym: the letters of a title become a word: NASA

·         abbreviation: a little like clipping: television > TV

·         proper name: hamburger < Hamburg

·         folk etymology: a foreign words is assimilated to native forms: cucuracha (Spanish) > cockroach (English)

·         back formation: removing what is mistaken for an affix. burglar > burgle

INTRODUCTION TO PHONOLOGY

Phonetics is the scientific study of sounds used in language: how the sounds are produced, how they are transferred from the speaker to the hearer and how they are heard and perceived. The Sounds of Language provides an accessible, general introduction to phonetics with a special emphasis on English.[1]

The Sound-Producing System

Phonetics consists of the study of speech sounds, and involves the creation and production of sound by the human voice. There are several components that combine to produce speech sounds. These include articulators, or movements of the mouth. Speech organs, such as the respiratory system, assist in producing speech and auditory phonetics. The human voice can create many speech sounds, which vary by language. The English language has 13 vowels and 24 consonant sounds; which vary by dialect.

Articulatory System

The articulatory system includes the nose, mouth, tongue, teeth, the roof of the mouth and lips. These structures work together to produce phonetics. Air streaming through the nose, and the tongue touching behind the front teeth, creates the sound for the letter "n." Closed lips produce sounds such as "p" by air pushing out. Specific movements and placements of these components create different sounds.

Respiratory System

Speech organs also work in cooperation with the articulators for sound production. An example is the respiratory system or lungs, chest muscles, and the windpipe that operates with the larynx. The larynx at the top of the windpipe has two vocal folds or cords, which work like lips. Air from the lungs, coordinating with the chest muscles, opens and closes the vocal cords by vibration, producing phonetic sounds. The respiratory system is complex, containing many structures that work in coordination to produce phonetics.

Auditory System

The auditory system involves the perception or understanding of phonetic sounds. As a baby begins to recognize sounds, she begins to babble. Babies first babble vowel sounds such as "a" or "e." As a mother repeats sounds to her child, phonetics grow and develop. Typically, intelligible speech production begins between 18 and 48 months. As children develop speech sounds they will string sounds into words, and eventually sentences.[2]

VOICED AND VOICELESS SOUNDS

There are 26 letters in the English alphabet, but there are 39 sounds (15 vowel sounds and 24 consonant sounds) produced by these letters. (see vowel and consonant sections).

A vowel is a sound where air coming from the lungs is not blocked by the mouth or throat. All normal English words contain at least one vowel.

       

        The vowels are:

        A, E, I, O, U, and sometimes Y. 

         'Y' can also behave as a consonant when it is at the beginning of a word.

A consonant is a sound formed by stopping the air flowing through the mouth.

       

        The consonants are:

        B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, X, Y, Z

All the sounds produced in the English are either voiced or voiceless. Voiced sounds occur when the vocal cords vibrate when the sound is produced. There is no vocal cord vibration when producing voiceless sounds. To test this, place your finger tips hand on your throat as you say the sounds. When saying the voiced sounds, you should be able to feel a vibration. When saying the voiceless sounds you sound not be able to feel a vibration.

Sometimes it is very difficult to feel the difference between a voiced and voiceless sound. Another test may help. Put a piece of paper in front of your mouth when saying the sounds- the paper will should move when saying the unvoiced sounds.

All vowels in English are voiced. Some of the consonant sounds are voiced and some are voiceless. Some of the consonant sounds produced in English are very similar. Many times the difference between them is because one is voiced and the other is voiceless. Two examples are 'z', which is voiced and 's', which is voiceless. See the chart below for a listing of the voiced and voiceless consonants.[3]

·         Voiced consonants sounds; B, d, g, v, z, th, sz, j, l, m, n, ng, r, w, y.

·         Voiceless consonant sounds; p, t, k, f,s,th,sh,ch,h.

PLACES AND MANNERS OF ARTICULATION

MANNER OF ARTICULATION
Plosive	A complete closure is made somewhere in the vocal tract, and the soft palate is also raised. Air pressure increases behind the closure, and is then released ‘explosively’.
Affricate	A complete closure is made somewhere in the mouth, and the soft palate is raised. Air pressure increases behind the closure, and is then released more slowly than in plosive.
Fricative	When two vocal organs come close enough together for the movement of air between them to be heard.
Nasal	A closure is made by the lips, or by the tongue againts the palate, the soft palate is lowered, and air escape through the nose.
Lateral	A partial closure is made by the blade of the tongue againts the alveolar ridge. Air is able to flow around the sides of the tongue.
Approximant	Vocal organs come near to each other, but not so close as to cause audible friction.

PLACE OF ARTICULATION
Bilabial	Using closing movement of both lips.
Labio-dental	Using the lower lip and the upper teeth.
Dental	The tongue tip is used either between the teeth or close to the upper teeth.
Alveolar	the blade of the tongue is used close to the alveolar ridge.
Palato-alveolar	The blade (or tip) of the tongue is used just behind the alveolar ridge.
Palatal	The front of tongue is raised close to the palate.
Velar	The back of the tongue is used againts the soft palate.
Glotall	The gap between the vocal cords is used to make audible friction.

VOWELS

A speech sound which is produced by comparatively open configuration of the vocal tract, with vibration of the vocal cords but without audible friction, and which is a unit of the sound system of a language that forms the nucleus of a syllable. Contrasted with consonant.  A  letter representing a vowel sound, such as a, e, i, o, u.[4]

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[1] www.amazon.com

[2] www.ehow.com

[3] http://www.pronunciationtips.com/voiced.htm

[4] http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/vowel